Resolution
The IP base is for the Standard Multilayer Software Image (SMI) switches, and the IP services image is for the Enhanced Standard Multilayer Software Image (EMI) switches in Cisco IOS Software Release 12.2(25)SEB and later.
For the Catalyst 3750 and 3560 switches, Cisco IOS Software Release 12.2(25)SEA and earlier referred to the image that provides Layer 2+ (L2) features and basic Layer 3 routing as the Standard Multilayer Image (SMI). The image that provides full Layer 3 routing and advanced services was referred to as the EMI.
The inter VLAN routing feature is supported on both IP base or SMI and IP services or EMI image Layer 3 switches. For Layer 2-only switches, you require a Layer 3 routing device with any of the previous images.
The IP Base feature set includes advanced quality of service (QoS), rate limiting, access control lists (ACLs), and basic static and Routing Information Protocol (RIP) functions. Dynamic IP routing protocols (Open Shortest Path First (OSPF), BGPv4, Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP)) are available only on the IP services image.
The IP Services image provides a richer set of enterprise-class features, which includes advanced hardware-based IP unicast and IP Multicast routing. Support for IPv6 Layer 3 switching in hardware is also available with the addition of the Advanced IP Services license to either the IP Base or the IP Services images. Both the IP base Image and the IP services image allow for Layer 3 and Layer 4 lookups for QoS and security.
Tuesday, April 26, 2011
Stateful vs. Stateless Firewalls
Stateful vs. Stateless Firewalls
A firewall can be described as being either Stateful, or Stateless.
STATELESS
Stateless firewalls watch network traffic, and restrict or block packets based on source and destination addresses or other static values. They are not 'aware' of traffic patterns or data flows. A stateless firewall uses simple rule-sets that do not account for the possibility that a packet might be received by the firewall 'pretending' to be something you asked for.
STATEFUL
Stateful firewalls can watch traffic streams from end to end. They are are aware of communication paths and can implement various IP Security (IPsec) functions such as tunnels and encryption. In technical terms, this means that stateful firewalls can tell what stage a TCP connection is in (open, open sent, synchronized, synchronization acknowledge or established), it can tell if the MTU has changed, whether packets have fragmented etc.
Neither is really superior and there are good arguments for both types of firewalls. Stateless firewalls are typically faster and perform better under heavier traffic loads. Stateful firewalls are better at identifying unauthorized and forged communications.
Configuring Network Address Translation
ip nat inside source
Translates the source of IP packets that are traveling inside to outside.
Translates the destination of the IP packets that are traveling outside to inside.
ip nat outside source
Translates the source of the IP packets that are traveling outside to inside.
Translates the destination of the IP packets that are traveling inside to outside.
Reference:
http://www.cisco.com/en/US/tech/tk648/tk361/technologies_tech_note09186a0080094e77.shtml
http://www.cisco.com/en/US/tech/tk648/tk361/technologies_configuration_example09186a0080093f8e.shtml
Translates the source of IP packets that are traveling inside to outside.
Translates the destination of the IP packets that are traveling outside to inside.
ip nat outside source
Translates the source of the IP packets that are traveling outside to inside.
Translates the destination of the IP packets that are traveling inside to outside.
Reference:
http://www.cisco.com/en/US/tech/tk648/tk361/technologies_tech_note09186a0080094e77.shtml
http://www.cisco.com/en/US/tech/tk648/tk361/technologies_configuration_example09186a0080093f8e.shtml
Is 5 GHz Wireless Network Hardware Better than 2.4 GHz
Question: Is 5 GHz Wireless Network Hardware Better than 2.4 GHz?
Wireless computer network equipment typically uses radio signals in either a 2.4 GHz range or a 5 GHz range. These numbers are advertised prominently on product packaging, but their meaning is often misunderstood. Is 5 GHz network hardware better than 2.4 GHz hardware just because it carries a bigger number?
Answer: No. 5 GHz hardware offers a few advantages over 2.4 GHz hardware, but in practice, 2.4 GHz is usually the better choice for home and other wireless local networks.
GHz and Network Speed
The GHz range of a wireless radio only partially relates to the speed of a wireless network. For example, 802.11a Wi-Fi hardware runs at 5 GHz but supports the same maximum data rate of 54 Mbps as standard 802.11g network that run at 2.4 GHz.
A 5 GHz network can carry more data than a 2.4 GHz network assuming the electric power to the higher frequency radios is maintained at a higher level. However, some 802.11g network products match and even exceed this potential speed advantage of 5 GHz 802.11a by utilizing a pair of radios instead of one, increasing capacity up to 108 Mbps under the right conditions.
Advantage: Both
GHz and Network Range
The higher the frequency of a wireless signal, the shorter its range. Thus, 2.4 GHz networks cover a substantially larger range than 5 GHz wireless networks. In particular, the higher frequency wireless signals of 5 GHz networks do not penetrate solid objects nearly as well as do 2.4 GHz signals, limiting their reach inside homes.
Advantage: 2.4 GHz.
GHz and Network Interference
You may notice your cordless phone, automatic garage door opener, or other home appliance also advertises 2.4 GHz signals on its packaging. Because this frequency range is commonly used in consumer products, it's more likely a 2.4 GHz home network will pick up interference from appliances than will a 5 GHz home network.
Advantage: 5 GHz
GHz and Cost
Some people mistakenly believe 5 GHz network technology is newer or somehow more innovative than 2.4 GHz. In fact, both types of signaling have existed for many years and are both proven technologies.
802.11g Wi-Fi products that run at 2.4 GHz tend to cost less than 802.11a Wi-Fi products not because 802.11g is obsolete or less capable, but because 802.11g is much more popular and thus economical for manufacturers to support.
Advantage: 2.4 GHz
5 GHz vs 2.4 GHz - The Bottom Line
5 GHz and 2.4 GHz are different wireless signaling frequencies that each have advantages for computer networking. Higher frequency networks are not necessarily superior to lower frequency ones, however. So-called dual band hardware combines the best of both types of hardware by integrating both types of radios into the product.
Wireless computer network equipment typically uses radio signals in either a 2.4 GHz range or a 5 GHz range. These numbers are advertised prominently on product packaging, but their meaning is often misunderstood. Is 5 GHz network hardware better than 2.4 GHz hardware just because it carries a bigger number?
Answer: No. 5 GHz hardware offers a few advantages over 2.4 GHz hardware, but in practice, 2.4 GHz is usually the better choice for home and other wireless local networks.
GHz and Network Speed
The GHz range of a wireless radio only partially relates to the speed of a wireless network. For example, 802.11a Wi-Fi hardware runs at 5 GHz but supports the same maximum data rate of 54 Mbps as standard 802.11g network that run at 2.4 GHz.
A 5 GHz network can carry more data than a 2.4 GHz network assuming the electric power to the higher frequency radios is maintained at a higher level. However, some 802.11g network products match and even exceed this potential speed advantage of 5 GHz 802.11a by utilizing a pair of radios instead of one, increasing capacity up to 108 Mbps under the right conditions.
Advantage: Both
GHz and Network Range
The higher the frequency of a wireless signal, the shorter its range. Thus, 2.4 GHz networks cover a substantially larger range than 5 GHz wireless networks. In particular, the higher frequency wireless signals of 5 GHz networks do not penetrate solid objects nearly as well as do 2.4 GHz signals, limiting their reach inside homes.
Advantage: 2.4 GHz.
GHz and Network Interference
You may notice your cordless phone, automatic garage door opener, or other home appliance also advertises 2.4 GHz signals on its packaging. Because this frequency range is commonly used in consumer products, it's more likely a 2.4 GHz home network will pick up interference from appliances than will a 5 GHz home network.
Advantage: 5 GHz
GHz and Cost
Some people mistakenly believe 5 GHz network technology is newer or somehow more innovative than 2.4 GHz. In fact, both types of signaling have existed for many years and are both proven technologies.
802.11g Wi-Fi products that run at 2.4 GHz tend to cost less than 802.11a Wi-Fi products not because 802.11g is obsolete or less capable, but because 802.11g is much more popular and thus economical for manufacturers to support.
Advantage: 2.4 GHz
5 GHz vs 2.4 GHz - The Bottom Line
5 GHz and 2.4 GHz are different wireless signaling frequencies that each have advantages for computer networking. Higher frequency networks are not necessarily superior to lower frequency ones, however. So-called dual band hardware combines the best of both types of hardware by integrating both types of radios into the product.
Saturday, April 23, 2011
Passive-interface command behavior in RIP, EIGRP & OSPF
Passive-interface command behavior in RIP, EIGRP & OSPF
from http://networkers-online.com/blog/2008/08/how-to-avoid-dns-lookup-when-mistyping-a-command/
Passive-interface command is used in all routing protocols to disable sending updates out from a specific interface. However the command behavior varies from one protocol to another.
In RIP this command will disable sending multicast updates via a specific interface but will allow listening to incoming updates from other RIP speaking neighbors.
This simply means that the router will still be able to receive updates on that passive interface and use them in the routing table.
In EIGRP the passive-interface command stops sending outgoing hello packets, hence the router can not form any neighbor relationship via the passive interface. This behavior stops both outgoing and incoming routing updates.
In OSPF the passive-interface has a similar behavior to EIGRP. The command suppresses hello packets and hence neighbor relationships.
I have only one final note here regarding sending unicast updates:
If you used the neighbor command under the RIP process, the router will send unicast updates as well as multicast updates.The passive-interface command must be used disable multicast updates and allowing only unicast.
In EIGRP the neighbor command disables multicast updates on an interface by default and allows only unicast updates.
Wednesday, April 20, 2011
人生在“势”富在心
社会中的财富不断被毁灭，同时也不断在产生。阁下有没有智慧捕捉到下一个投资大趋势？
一个人的投资成败，取决于其本身的性格；一个人快乐与否，则取决于其对金钱的态度。请不要成为金钱的奴隶，而要让金钱为自己服务。
金钱如潮水，来时挡不住，去时也留不住。不要害怕失败亏损，只有敢想敢做的投资者，才能通过”7C”理论，获取真正的财富。
有限时间赚无限财富
一个人能否成功，取决于这个人能否善用时间。每天扣除8小时睡眠和4小时吃饭时间，我们只剩12个小时可用；如果你需要上班，又至少占去8小时。换句话说，每天真正由自己支配的时间，可能不到4小时，真的非常少。
人们做事却往往将事物的优先次序调转，先做不重要的事，到最后便没有时间处理重要的事。戒除此恶习的方法是，每天起床之时，花5分钟想想今天必须首先处理的事，然后真真正正去做。养成”今天的事今天做”的好习惯，可能为你带来十分惊人的改变。
你决定每天花一两个小时阅读，便应持之以恒，因为”三天不看书，便语言乏味；十天不看书，便失去方向”。离开学校后，我们若能每天保持看书一两个小时，足可改变自己的一生。通过看书，我们不但可以渐渐提升个人投资水平，还可以提高个人素质。
我们如何利用一生有限的时间去赚取无限财富？以下的”7C”理论或有参考价值。
第一个C是Clarity（清晰），即目标要明确。记得中学毕业时，同学们围坐在一起畅谈人生目标，我老曹的回答十分清晰：以一切合法方法去赚钱！虽然被同学耻笑为”市侩”，但至今我仍然坚持赚钱这个目标。
一个人财政独立后，才算真正独立。但钱从何处来？对大部分人而言，金钱多来自工作和投资的收入。”君子爱财，取之有道。”那些口口声声说自己看不起金钱的人，如果不是自己没有钱，就是在说谎。那么如何取之有道？如果你只有工作收入，便要量力而为，节制一下消费冲动，因为如果你手上没有成千上万元，怎么能开始投资？
第二个C是Competence（完美）。我老曹从1969年开始涉足股票市场，发现自己不足，便努力学习投资知识，不只要做到最好，还要追求完美。
第三个C是Constraint（约束）。学海无涯，如何以有生之年在无涯的学海中畅游？有一次我接受香港著名财经主持人香树辉的采访，他问：”除了投资外，你还有什么嗜好？”问得我老曹哑口无言。皆因我一辈子除了投资之外，其它东西都难引起我的兴趣。
一人有一个梦想
第四个C是Creativity（创意），即想象力，也就是今天投资者所谓的”概念”。人必须解放自己的想象力，有所追求，才能有所成就。记得20世纪70年代，我老曹看见九龙仓（后被包玉刚爵士收购，上市编号为00004.HK）的货仓占用香港尖沙咀地皮，便想象若有一天那里变成商场、酒店或写字楼，该值多少钱？当时实在难以想象今天那里会成为本地人、旅客必去的大型购物商场–海港城。
过位于香港红的黄埔船坞，我又幻想该处成为住宅区后会价值多少？1976年起，船坞地皮开始重新发展，先后建成私人住宅黄埔新村和黄埔花园。1985年初，盖在船坞原址上的黄埔花园，从一开始的预售价格不足每平方米7 000元人民币，发展到今天每平方米的售价已升至40 000元人民币以上。
第五个C是Concentration（专注），即集中全力。巴菲特在1994年对大学生演讲时曾说：如果你一辈子当中有十大理想，请选择放弃其中五个，因为任凭你一生如何努力，也无法完成全部理想。我老曹想法更简单，正如香港以前的一个歌手黎瑞恩所唱的”一人有一个梦想”就好了。
不要只是许愿（wish）与空想（hope），而要让事情发生（make it happen）。俗话说：”君子立志长，小人常立志。”不少人常常立志，差不多每年春天都立志，但到每年秋天都忘了。这其实不是立志，只是许愿与空想。年轻人通常想得太多，做得太少。大多数人天天做梦，今天想当歌星，明天想当医生，后天又想着发达，结果一事无成。
美国巨富盖茨（Bill Gates）一生只专注做好一件事。1976年一家叫微软（Microsoft）的公司从MITS计算机公司分拆出来；1979年，当时年仅21岁的盖茨专注研究和开发计算机软件，废寝忘食到无法在哈佛大学完成学业。他正好赶上IBM巨型计算机被个人计算机（PC）取代的时期，一开始便坐上微软首席执行官（CEO）之位。1986年微软成功上市。
与盖茨同时期出生、同时期进大学、同样攻读计算机系者不知凡几，最后谁能像盖茨一样雄霸软件天下？必须天时、地利、人和三方面配合，才可制造出这种天才；有些人空有天分，却没有适当的后天栽培及个人努力，结果也是枉然。
而如果盖茨出身于中国的富裕家庭，他的父母必定会阻止他离开哈佛而加入微软（当年微软只是一家微型公司）。中国人是吃米的民族，种米必须辛勤劳动才能有收获（谁知盘中餐，粒粒皆辛苦）；反之，西方人是吃小麦的民族，小麦收成极易受天气影响，形成西方民族极富冒险精神。盖茨好胜，做什么都一定要赢（包括做善事），故能称王。
1999年是微软的高峰期，盖茨手上的股份当时市值1 000亿美元。虽然2000年科技股泡沫爆破，微软开始走下坡，但相关股份现值仍高达600亿美元。
敢想 敢做
第六个C是Courage（勇气）。我老曹有位朋友，儿时的梦想是成为20世纪60年代在香港叱咤一时、位于香港中环的希尔顿酒店CEO。一天我发现该酒店登广告招聘实习生，于是立即通知他去申请，谁知他说﹕”我怕。”他怕什么呢？我想，他主要是怕输！
1967年时，这位朋友的学历比我老曹好，但岁月匆匆，几十年过去了，他还是没有什么改变，整天感慨自己怀才不遇、一生欠缺运气。我老曹冷眼旁观，也不便明言：他欠缺的其实是勇气。
自古成功者皆得益于勇于尝试。我老曹儿时的梦想是追求财富，并为此花上数十年精力去完成。今天香港不少大企业家在20世纪60年代的时候只拥有一盘小生意，他们能够有今天的地位，主要就是敢想并且敢做。
最后一个C是Closure（结束），即训练自己在限期之内完成任务。例如阁下的目标是用5年时间赚取第一桶金，然后再用5年时间将1桶金变成2桶金、4桶金、8桶金，以每5年一倍的速度上升。因为人类天生有惰性，如无时间限制便不能达标，所以要制定目标并限时完成。如果需要花上一生时间才赚到第一桶金，用处已经不大。
一个人一辈子投资的成败，主要取决于性格。如适当运用”7C”理论，订立目标，便可以用一辈子有限的时间去赚取无限的财富。没有人永远选股正确，只要发现选股错误，果断地止损便可。记住小败小负没问题，只要在大趋势中胜出便可（Lose in the battle, win in the war）。
Wednesday, April 13, 2011
CUCM Extension Mobility
Extension Mobility Configuration Elements
Configuration Element Name
Configuration Element Function
Phone
Stores the configuration of physical phones. Configuration parameters include device-specific phone parameters (such as device CSS, location, or MRGL), user-specific phone parameters(such as user MOH audio source, DND, or softkey template), and (user-specific) button configuration (such as lines or speed dials).
End User
The end user is associated with one or more device profiles. The User ID and the PIN are used to log in to a phone with Extension Mobility.
Device profile
Stores user-specific phone configuration in logical profiles. Configuration parameters include user-specific phone and button parameters (such as lines and speed dials). The parameters of the device profile are applied to a physical phone after a user logs in to the phone using Extension Mobility.
Phone service
Extension Mobility is implemented as a phone service. Hardware phones and device profiles have to be subscribed to the service.
Default device profile
Stores the default device configuration parameters that should be applied when the phone model of a user’s device profile is different from the phone model of the phone where the user logs in.
Relationship Between Extension Mobility Configuration Elements
1. Device-dependent parameters such as the phone button template and softkey template from the default device profile are applied to the phone.
NOTE If the phone button template that is configured in the user's device profile matches the number of buttons on the login device, the system uses the phone button template from the user's device profile. Otherwise, the system uses the phone's default device profile for phone button configuration.
2. The system copies all device-independent configuration settings, such as user hold audio source, user locale, speed dials, and line configuration, from the device profile to the login device. Exceptions are the parameters specified under line settings for this device.
3. The applicable device-dependent parameters of the user's device profile are applied. These parameters include buttons (such as line and feature buttons) based on the phone button template that has been applied from the default device profile.
4. If supported on the login device, phone service subscriptions from the user's device profile are applied to the phone.
5. If the user's device profile does not have phone services configured, the system uses the phone services that are configured in the default device profile of the login device.
Configuration Element Name
Configuration Element Function
Phone
Stores the configuration of physical phones. Configuration parameters include device-specific phone parameters (such as device CSS, location, or MRGL), user-specific phone parameters(such as user MOH audio source, DND, or softkey template), and (user-specific) button configuration (such as lines or speed dials).
End User
The end user is associated with one or more device profiles. The User ID and the PIN are used to log in to a phone with Extension Mobility.
Device profile
Stores user-specific phone configuration in logical profiles. Configuration parameters include user-specific phone and button parameters (such as lines and speed dials). The parameters of the device profile are applied to a physical phone after a user logs in to the phone using Extension Mobility.
Phone service
Extension Mobility is implemented as a phone service. Hardware phones and device profiles have to be subscribed to the service.
Default device profile
Stores the default device configuration parameters that should be applied when the phone model of a user’s device profile is different from the phone model of the phone where the user logs in.
Relationship Between Extension Mobility Configuration Elements
1. The user presses the Services button on the phone and chooses the Extension Mobility service from the list of phone services available at the phone.
2. The Extension Mobility service requires the user to log in using his or her user ID and PIN. The user enters the required data on the phone by pressing each phone button as many times as needed to select the alphanumeric characters for his or her user ID and PIN.
3. If the entered user ID and PIN are correct, Extension Mobility chooses the device profile that is associated with the user.
NOTE If a user is associated with more than one device profile, all associated profiles are displayed, and the user has to choose the desired profile, as illustrated for User2 in Figure 12-3. Assigning multiple profiles to a user means that the user is provided with a separate device profile for each site. Doing this is common when the traditional approach is used to implement Calling Search Spaces (CSS). Extension Mobility updates only the line configuration, including the line CSS, but not the device CSS. To allow the choice of a local gateway for outbound PSTN calls, a different line CSS has to be applied for each site. In such a scenario, the user chooses a site-specific device profile that differs from the device profile that is used at other sites in its line CSS. The line CSS of such site-specific profiles gives access to route patterns that route PSTN calls to the appropri-ate local gateway to minimize toll charges. Extension Mobility also works well if the more modern approach of gateway selection of PSTN at the device (phone) level and blocking the CSS at the line level is implemented.
4. CUCM updates the phone configuration with the settings of the chosen device profile.
2. The Extension Mobility service requires the user to log in using his or her user ID and PIN. The user enters the required data on the phone by pressing each phone button as many times as needed to select the alphanumeric characters for his or her user ID and PIN.
3. If the entered user ID and PIN are correct, Extension Mobility chooses the device profile that is associated with the user.
NOTE If a user is associated with more than one device profile, all associated profiles are displayed, and the user has to choose the desired profile, as illustrated for User2 in Figure 12-3. Assigning multiple profiles to a user means that the user is provided with a separate device profile for each site. Doing this is common when the traditional approach is used to implement Calling Search Spaces (CSS). Extension Mobility updates only the line configuration, including the line CSS, but not the device CSS. To allow the choice of a local gateway for outbound PSTN calls, a different line CSS has to be applied for each site. In such a scenario, the user chooses a site-specific device profile that differs from the device profile that is used at other sites in its line CSS. The line CSS of such site-specific profiles gives access to route patterns that route PSTN calls to the appropri-ate local gateway to minimize toll charges. Extension Mobility also works well if the more modern approach of gateway selection of PSTN at the device (phone) level and blocking the CSS at the line level is implemented.
4. CUCM updates the phone configuration with the settings of the chosen device profile.
User-specific device-level parameters, lines, and other phone buttons are updated with user-specific settings.
5. The IP Phone is reset and loads the updated configuration.
Extension Mobility Solution to Phone Model Differences
After successful authentication, if the phone model of the device profile does not match the phone model of the actually used phone, the following happens:
5. The IP Phone is reset and loads the updated configuration.
Extension Mobility Solution to Phone Model Differences
After successful authentication, if the phone model of the device profile does not match the phone model of the actually used phone, the following happens:
1. Device-dependent parameters such as the phone button template and softkey template from the default device profile are applied to the phone.
NOTE If the phone button template that is configured in the user's device profile matches the number of buttons on the login device, the system uses the phone button template from the user's device profile. Otherwise, the system uses the phone's default device profile for phone button configuration.
2. The system copies all device-independent configuration settings, such as user hold audio source, user locale, speed dials, and line configuration, from the device profile to the login device. Exceptions are the parameters specified under line settings for this device.
3. The applicable device-dependent parameters of the user's device profile are applied. These parameters include buttons (such as line and feature buttons) based on the phone button template that has been applied from the default device profile.
4. If supported on the login device, phone service subscriptions from the user's device profile are applied to the phone.
5. If the user's device profile does not have phone services configured, the system uses the phone services that are configured in the default device profile of the login device.
EM Configuration
Step 1 Activate the Cisco Extension Mobility service in CUCM for the cluster.
Step 2 Set Cisco Extension Mobility service parameters.
Step 3 Add the Cisco Extension Mobility phone service.
Step 4 Create default device profiles for all phone models used.
Step 5 Create device profiles, and subscribe them to the Cisco Extension Mobility phone service.
Step 6 Create end users, and associate them with device profiles.
Step 7 Enable Extension Mobility for phones, and subscribe the phones to the Cisco Extension Mobility service.
Reference:
CIPT2 v6.0 Chap12 Implementing Extension Mobility
Step 1 Activate the Cisco Extension Mobility service in CUCM for the cluster.
Step 2 Set Cisco Extension Mobility service parameters.
Step 3 Add the Cisco Extension Mobility phone service.
Step 4 Create default device profiles for all phone models used.
Step 5 Create device profiles, and subscribe them to the Cisco Extension Mobility phone service.
Step 6 Create end users, and associate them with device profiles.
Step 7 Enable Extension Mobility for phones, and subscribe the phones to the Cisco Extension Mobility service.
Reference:
CIPT2 v6.0 Chap12 Implementing Extension Mobility
Sunday, April 10, 2011
The difference between redistribute connected and redistribute connected subnets
The difference between redistribute connected and redistribute connected subnets
r4
router ospf 1
redistribute connected
r4
router ospf 1
redistribute connected
R3(config-router)#do sho ip route os
4.0.0.0/32 is subnetted, 1 subnets
O 4.4.4.4 [110/65] via 131.1.34.4, 00:00:02, Serial1/0.34
4.0.0.0/32 is subnetted, 1 subnets
O 4.4.4.4 [110/65] via 131.1.34.4, 00:00:02, Serial1/0.34
==== now lets try redistribute connected subnets ====
r4
router ospf 1
redistribute connected subnets
r4
router ospf 1
redistribute connected subnets
R3(config-router)#do sho ip route os
4.0.0.0/8 is variably subnetted, 5 subnets, 2 masks
O 4.4.4.4/32 [110/65] via 131.1.34.4, 00:00:12, Serial1/0.34
O E2 4.4.0.0/24 [110/20] via 131.1.34.4, 00:00:03, Serial1/0.34
O E2 4.4.1.0/24 [110/20] via 131.1.34.4, 00:00:03, Serial1/0.34
O E2 4.4.2.0/24 [110/20] via 131.1.34.4, 00:00:03, Serial1/0.34
O E2 4.4.3.0/24 [110/20] via 131.1.34.4, 00:00:03, Serial1/0.34
4.0.0.0/8 is variably subnetted, 5 subnets, 2 masks
O 4.4.4.4/32 [110/65] via 131.1.34.4, 00:00:12, Serial1/0.34
O E2 4.4.0.0/24 [110/20] via 131.1.34.4, 00:00:03, Serial1/0.34
O E2 4.4.1.0/24 [110/20] via 131.1.34.4, 00:00:03, Serial1/0.34
O E2 4.4.2.0/24 [110/20] via 131.1.34.4, 00:00:03, Serial1/0.34
O E2 4.4.3.0/24 [110/20] via 131.1.34.4, 00:00:03, Serial1/0.34
OSPF area types
OSPF area types
Advancing from last week's discussion on OSPF network types, today's topic is a source of considerable confusion for many people new to OSPF: area types. Recall that a large OSPF domain is typically broken into separate areas to restrict the propagation of routes and reduce the amount of resources required by each router to maintain its link state database. Each area is connected to a central backbone, area zero.
OSPF relies on several types of Link State Advertisements (LSAs) to communicate link state information between neighbors. A brief review of the most applicable LSA types:
- Type 1 - Represents a router
- Type 2 - Represents the pseudonode (designated router) for a multiaccess link
- Type 3 - A network link summary (internal route)
- Type 4 - Represents an ASBR
- Type 5 - A route external to the OSPF domain
- Type 7 - Used in stub areas in place of a type 5 LSA
LSA types 1 and 2 are found in all areas, and are never flooded outside of an area. Whether the other types of LSAs are advertised within an area depends on the area type, and there are many:
- Backbone area (area 0)
- Standard area
- Stub area
- Totally stubby area
- Not-so-stubby area (NSSA)
Let's begin by examining a standard area. Note that the backbone area is essentially a standard area which has been designated as the central point to which all other areas connect, so a discussion of standard area behavior largely applies to the backbone area as well.
Standard Areas
In the example above, router 2 acts as the area border router (ABR) between a standard area and the backbone. R3 is redistributing routes from an external domain, and is therefore designated as an autonomous system boundary router (ASBR).
As mentioned, type 1 and 2 LSAs are being flooded between routers sharing a common area. This applies to all area types, as these LSAs are used to build an area's shortest-path tree, and consequently only relevant to a single area. Type 3 and 5 LSAs, which describe internal and external IP routes, respectively, are flooded throughout the backbone and all standard areas. External routes are generated by an ASBR, while internal routes can be generated by any OSPF router.
Note the peculiar case of type 4 LSAs. These LSAs are injected into the backbone by the ABR of an area which contains an ASBR. This is to ensure all other routers in the OSPF domain can reach the ASBR.
Standard areas work fine and ensure optimal routing since all routers know about all routes. However, there are often situations when an area has limited access to the rest of the network, and maintaining a full link state database is unnecessary. Additionally, an area may contain low-end routers incapable of maintaining a full database for a large OSPF network. Such areas can be configured to block certain LSA types and become lightweight stub areas.
Stub Areas
In this next example, R2 and R3 share a common stub area. Instead of propagating external routes (type 5 LSAs) into the area, the ABR injects a type 3 LSA containing a default route into the stub area. This ensures that routers in the stub area will be able to route traffic to external destinations without having to maintain all of the individual external routes. Because external routes are not received by the stub area, ABRs also do not forward type 4 LSAs from other areas into the stub.
For an area to become a stub, all routers belonging to it must be configured to operate as such. Stub routers and non-stub routers will not form adjacencies.
Router(config-router)# area 10 stub
This idea of substituting a single default route for many specific routes can be applied to internal routes as well, which is the case of totally stubby areas.
Totally Stubby Areas
Like stub areas, totally stubby areas do not receive type 4 or 5 LSAs from their ABRs. However, they also do not receive type 3 LSAs; all routing out of the area relies on the single default route injected by the ABR.
A stub area is extended to a totally stubby area by configuring all of its ABRs with the
no-summary parameter:Router(config-router)# area 10 stub no-summary
Stub and totally stubby areas can certainly be convenient to reduce the resource utilization of routers in portions of the network not requiring full routing knowledge. However, neither type can contain an ASBR, as type 4 and 5 LSAs are not permitted inside the area. To solve this problem, and in what is arguably the worst naming decision ever made, Cisco introduced the concept of a not-so-stubby area (NSSA).
Not-so-stubby Areas
An NSSA makes use of type 7 LSAs, which are essentially type 5 LSAs in disguise. This allows an ASBR to advertise external links to an ABR, which converts the type 7 LSAs into type 5 before flooding them to the rest of the OSPF domain.
An NSSA can function as either a stub or totally stubby area. To designate a normal (stub) NSSA, all routers in the area must be so configured:
Router(config-router)# area 10 nssa
Type 3 LSAs will pass into and out of the area. Unlike a normal stub area, the ABR will not inject a default route into an NSSA unless explicitly configured to do so. As traffic cannot be routed to external destinations without a default route, you'll probably want to include one by appending
default-information-originate (thanks to Adam for pointing this out).Router(config-router)# area 10 nssa default-information-originate
To expand an NSSA to function as a totally stubby area, eliminating type 3 LSAs, all of its ABRs must be configured with the
no-summary parameter:Router(config-router)# area 10 nssa no-summary
The ABR of a totally stubby NSSA (or not-so-totally-stubby area, if you prefer) injects a default route without any further configuration.
Summary
- Standard areas can contain LSAs of type 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, and may contain an ASBR. The backbone is considered a standard area.
- Stub areas can contain type 1, 2, and 3 LSAs. A default route is substituted for external routes.
- Totally stubby areas can only contain type 1 and 2 LSAs, and a single type 3 LSA. The type 3 LSA describes a default route, substituted for all external and inter-area routes.
- Not-so-stubby areas implement stub or totally stubby functionality yet contain an ASBR. Type 7 LSAs generated by the ASBR are converted to type 5 by ABRs to be flooded to the rest of the OSPF domain.
OSPF network types
OSPF network types
Having worked almost exclusively with Ethernet transport my whole career, it took me a while to really grasp the concept of non-broadcast networks. Dynamic routing protocols, particularly OSPF, demand familiarity with all sorts of layer two topologies, so I knew I had to better educate myself on the matter. Fortunately, working with Dynamips and virtual frame relay networks provided the experience I needed to feel comfortable implementing all the different OSPF network types.
OSPF addresses three classes of network (as listed in section 1.2 of RFC 2328): point-to-point, broadcast, and non-broadcast.
Point-to-Point
This is by far the simplest network type, and serves as a convenient anchor from which to advance the discussion. A point-to-point network is, as its name aptly describes, a link between exactly two points (or routers). A packet sent from on of the routers will always have exactly one recipient on the local link.
Broadcast
Obviously, point-to-point links don't scale well. A much more efficient manner of connecting a large number of devices is to implement a multiaccess segment; that is, a segment which can be accessed by multiple end points. An Ethernet segment is an example of such a network.
Ethernet networks support broadcasts; a single packet transmitted by a device can be multiplied by the medium (in this case an Ethernet switch) so that every other end point receives a copy. This is advantageous not only in bandwidth savings, but also in facilitating automatic neighbor discovery.
In the example pictured above, R1 can multicast (a broadcast intended only for certain recipients) an OSPF hello message to the link, knowing that all other OSPF routers connected to the link will receive it and reply with their own multicast message. Consequently, neighbors can quickly identify each other and form adjacencies without knowing addresses beforehand. Isn't that convenient?
OSPF routers on a multiaccess segment will elect a designated router (DR) and backup designated router (BDR) with which all non-designated routers will form an adjacency. This is to ensure that the number of adjacencies maintained does not grow too large; a network of five routers would require 20 adjacencies to form a mesh, but only 7 when a DR and BDR are in place.
Non-Broadcast
Unfortunately, not all multiaccess technologies support broadcast transmissions. Frame relay and ATM are probably the most common examples of non-broadcast transport, requiring individual permanent virtual circuits (PVCs) to be configured between end points.
Notice in the frame relay topology pictured above, R1 must craft and transmit an individual packet for every destination he wants to reach. Aside from being horribly inefficient with regard to bandwidth, this limitation requires the router to know the addresses of his neighbors before he can communicate to them.
OSPF can operate in one of two modes across a non-broadcast network: non-broadcast multi-access (NBMA) or point-to-multipoint. Each of these topologies tackles the absence of broadcast capability from a different direction.
Non-Broadcast Multi-Access (NBMA)
An NBMA segment emulates the function of a broadcast network. Every router on the segment must be configured with the IP address of each of its neighbors. OSPF hello packets are then individually transmitted as unicast packets to each adjacent neighbor.
As in a true broadcast network, a DR and BDR are elected to limit the number of adjacencies formed.
Point-to-Multipoint
A point-to-multipoint configuration approaches the non-broadcast limitation in a different manner. Rather than trying to emulate broadcast capability, it seeks to organize the PVCs into a collection of point-to-point networks. Hello packets must still be replicated and transmitted individually to each neighbor, but the multipoint approach offers two distinct advantages: no DR/BDR is needed, and the emulated point-to-point links can occupy a common subnet.
All routers attached to a non-broadcast network must be manually configured to recognize it as a point-to-multipoint segment:
Router(config-if)# ip ospf network point-to-multipoint [non-broadcast]
The
non-broadcast parameter can be appended to the OSPF network type to force unicasting of packets rather than relying on multicast. This might be necessary when dynamic circuits are in use.
Sunday, April 3, 2011
李财有方: 致富三部曲
李财有方: 致富三部曲
2010/03/08 3:31:09 PM
●李孙耀
在今天这个功利社会，致富已经是现代人的奋斗目标。为了达到这个共同目标，人们想出种种的方法来赚钱，方法之多不胜枚举。
总结一句话，那就是：八仙过海，各显神通。
每个人都拚命的赚钱，都想快点有钱。但是，今天，依贫富的比率来看，还是穷人多，富人少，可见致富的成功率还是少得可怜。
所以人们都以为，致富既然这样困难，那么肯定的，它必定是门很深奥的学问，所以，非用不寻常的方法才可以达致。
其实不然，真正的致富方法，只是三个步骤而已，那就是：
先苦后甜，胆大心细，积少成多。
这简单的三部曲就是就是许许多多白手起家的富翁的致富方法。
先苦后甜
顾名思义，“先苦后甜”就是把目前想要花的钱押后而已。要做到“先苦后甜”，首先就要战胜自己，控制自己的欲望。这样才可以控制开支，开始存钱。
如果以致富为目标，能够做到“先苦后甜”，比在职业上拼命的往上爬来得重要。
职位越来越高，薪酬也越来越高。但是，薪酬高的人不一定能够比薪酬低的人存更多的钱。如果生活水平也随着薪酬步步高升，结果还是一样的，存不到钱。
唯有能够做到“先苦后甜”的人，才能够真正的存到钱。
赚五千花五千，赚一万花一万，根本就没有做到“先苦后甜”，当然就存不到钱了！想要从无到有，就一定要踏出致富的第一步：先苦后甜。
胆大心细
先苦后甜，这道理人人都懂，但是执行起来却是辛苦，尤其是那些已经习惯了今朝有酒今朝醉的人更是如此。因为钱花惯了，想存就辛苦了。
辛苦归辛苦。
但是，这并不是一件困难的事情，只要有决心还是可以做得到的。
真正困难的事情是致富的第二步：胆大心细。
“先苦后甜”的目的是为了存钱，存钱的目的是为了投资。投资讲究的是“胆大心细”。
单单存钱在银行是不可能致富的。要致富一定要通过投资，要投资就要面对风险，要面对风险就要有胆量。
就是这胆量，决定了许多人的命运。
致富的第二步比第一步来得困难就是因为它需要用到胆量；但是，单单有胆量也是不能令人致富的。
没有计算清楚就拿出勇气，粗心大意的作出投资，这种纯粹靠运气的投资，不是真正的投资，只能算是投机。
投机不能令人致富；致富需要的是投资不是投机。只有 “胆大心细”的人，才有资格作出投资；只有作出投资，我们才有成功致富的机会。
但是，单单是“先苦后甜”和“胆大心细”还是不够的，要成功致富还是要依靠致富第三部曲：积少成多。
积少成多
投资致富是从无到有，这过程就是“积少成多”。“积少成多”靠的是时间，也就是耐性。致富靠的是复利，而复利却需要时间和耐性才可见功效。
罗马不是一天建成的。同样的，投资致富也不是一朝一夕就可以成功的。
缺乏耐性就无法做到“积少成多”，而缺乏耐性又是许多投资人的通病，所以耐性才是致富三部曲中最难的一环。
人生苦短，许多人都以为，如果要等到微小的本钱“积少成多”变成百万，人也差不多到了古稀之年，再多的钱也没用了。
但是请放心，“积少成多”并不是大家想象中的这么久。
通过复利的效应让资本开番，只要回酬可观，从无到有，也只是短短的十几年而已。一张报纸只要摺上42次，它的厚度就可以上到月球，懂得这道理的人就会知道复利的神奇，开番的奥妙。
但是，没有人需要这么多的钱，多到可以上到月球。
对许多人而言，有100万令吉已经是足够了。
那么100万令吉的钞票到底有多厚呢？
如果是面值100令吉的钞票，它的厚度也只是区区的1.25米而已，刚好是一个小孩的高度。
（作者为大马著名理财专家）
2010/03/08 3:31:09 PM
●李孙耀
在今天这个功利社会，致富已经是现代人的奋斗目标。为了达到这个共同目标，人们想出种种的方法来赚钱，方法之多不胜枚举。
总结一句话，那就是：八仙过海，各显神通。
每个人都拚命的赚钱，都想快点有钱。但是，今天，依贫富的比率来看，还是穷人多，富人少，可见致富的成功率还是少得可怜。
所以人们都以为，致富既然这样困难，那么肯定的，它必定是门很深奥的学问，所以，非用不寻常的方法才可以达致。
其实不然，真正的致富方法，只是三个步骤而已，那就是：
先苦后甜，胆大心细，积少成多。
这简单的三部曲就是就是许许多多白手起家的富翁的致富方法。
先苦后甜
顾名思义，“先苦后甜”就是把目前想要花的钱押后而已。要做到“先苦后甜”，首先就要战胜自己，控制自己的欲望。这样才可以控制开支，开始存钱。
如果以致富为目标，能够做到“先苦后甜”，比在职业上拼命的往上爬来得重要。
职位越来越高，薪酬也越来越高。但是，薪酬高的人不一定能够比薪酬低的人存更多的钱。如果生活水平也随着薪酬步步高升，结果还是一样的，存不到钱。
唯有能够做到“先苦后甜”的人，才能够真正的存到钱。
赚五千花五千，赚一万花一万，根本就没有做到“先苦后甜”，当然就存不到钱了！想要从无到有，就一定要踏出致富的第一步：先苦后甜。
胆大心细
先苦后甜，这道理人人都懂，但是执行起来却是辛苦，尤其是那些已经习惯了今朝有酒今朝醉的人更是如此。因为钱花惯了，想存就辛苦了。
辛苦归辛苦。
但是，这并不是一件困难的事情，只要有决心还是可以做得到的。
真正困难的事情是致富的第二步：胆大心细。
“先苦后甜”的目的是为了存钱，存钱的目的是为了投资。投资讲究的是“胆大心细”。
单单存钱在银行是不可能致富的。要致富一定要通过投资，要投资就要面对风险，要面对风险就要有胆量。
就是这胆量，决定了许多人的命运。
致富的第二步比第一步来得困难就是因为它需要用到胆量；但是，单单有胆量也是不能令人致富的。
没有计算清楚就拿出勇气，粗心大意的作出投资，这种纯粹靠运气的投资，不是真正的投资，只能算是投机。
投机不能令人致富；致富需要的是投资不是投机。只有 “胆大心细”的人，才有资格作出投资；只有作出投资，我们才有成功致富的机会。
但是，单单是“先苦后甜”和“胆大心细”还是不够的，要成功致富还是要依靠致富第三部曲：积少成多。
积少成多
投资致富是从无到有，这过程就是“积少成多”。“积少成多”靠的是时间，也就是耐性。致富靠的是复利，而复利却需要时间和耐性才可见功效。
罗马不是一天建成的。同样的，投资致富也不是一朝一夕就可以成功的。
缺乏耐性就无法做到“积少成多”，而缺乏耐性又是许多投资人的通病，所以耐性才是致富三部曲中最难的一环。
人生苦短，许多人都以为，如果要等到微小的本钱“积少成多”变成百万，人也差不多到了古稀之年，再多的钱也没用了。
但是请放心，“积少成多”并不是大家想象中的这么久。
通过复利的效应让资本开番，只要回酬可观，从无到有，也只是短短的十几年而已。一张报纸只要摺上42次，它的厚度就可以上到月球，懂得这道理的人就会知道复利的神奇，开番的奥妙。
但是，没有人需要这么多的钱，多到可以上到月球。
对许多人而言，有100万令吉已经是足够了。
那么100万令吉的钞票到底有多厚呢？
如果是面值100令吉的钞票，它的厚度也只是区区的1.25米而已，刚好是一个小孩的高度。
（作者为大马著名理财专家）
Friday, April 1, 2011
解读财经新闻●冷眼
分享锦集:解读财经新闻●冷眼
2011/03/25 5:51:40 PM
●冷眼
对一般知识水平的股票投资者来说，报纸的财经新闻，是他的主要资讯来源。
许多人是根据报纸对某只股票的报道或评估，作出购买的决定。
我对于这种作出投资决定的方式，有所保留。
因为报纸的版位有限，不可能对事件作全面详尽的报道，如果读者对事件的前因后果，没有认识的话，只根据一篇报道作出投资决定，往往因为考虑不周而作出错误的判断。
报纸的财经新闻当然是重要的，但是所有报道都必须加以解读，才有助于作出正确的判断。
如果只根据一篇报道就妄下判断，很有可能因认识不够深入而沦为偏见，偏见导致过分的乐观或悲观，投资者可能因此而采取错误的行动，导致不必要的损失，或是坐失投资良机。
同一篇的报道，在不同知识水平的读者眼中，有不同的解读，正确的解读来自丰富的知识。
要成为一名智慧型投资者，你必须养成长期阅读财经资讯的习惯，把自己的脑子变成一块磁铁，不断的吸收及储存财经知识，在需要时，随时可以从脑子中将知识呼唤出来，帮助你解读及比较新的资讯。
培养兴趣准确判断
这样才可以避免因知识不够而产生偏见，或是对最新的资讯作出错误的解读，而对投资作出错误的判断，导致不必要的损失。
许多人由于对刚发生的事件，缺乏分析的能力，作出错误的解读。在情绪下作出仓促的决定，事后发现，已后悔莫及。
要避免错误，惟一的方法是阅读，阅读再阅读，养成凡是财经资讯绝不放过阅读的机会，要做到这一点，就一定要培养对财经资讯的兴趣。
惟有对财经有一份狂热，才有可能持久阅读，持之以恒的阅读，对许多事件的来龙去脉，才能了如指掌，对资讯才能举一反三，成为投资的有用知识。
随时有惊喜
许多人视阅读财经资讯为畏途，实际上财经事件，天天在变，怎么会枯燥无味呢？对我这个财经迷来说，财经资讯比武侠小说更有趣，因为变化无穷，随时有惊喜出现，其曲折离奇不在武侠小说之下。
一则新闻几面理解
同一则财经新闻报道，在知识水平不同的读者眼中，有不同的解读，不同的理解。
让我随手举一个例子说明。
3月19日，中英文报纸均以不大显目的版位刊登一则马建屋（MBSB）的新闻。
马建屋向公积金局借款5亿令吉，作为扩展业务用途，在贷款签署仪式后，马建屋总执行长拿督再尼向报界发表谈话，披露了一些有关马建屋业务进展的资讯。
公积金局拥有马建屋66.1%的股权，故马建屋是公积金局的子公司，作为母公司，公积金局在商业基础上借给马建屋5亿令吉的款项，是一件很平常的商业行动。
这则新闻吸引我的不是公积金局贷款给马建屋，而是拿督再尼所披露有关马建屋的最新资讯：
放贷目标增幅罕见
●该公司今年放眼贷款增至100亿令吉，比去年增加一倍。
●该公司今年的个人融资放眼50亿令吉，比去年的30亿令吉，增加20亿令吉。
●今年首二个半月，该公司已发出个人融资18亿令吉。
●个人融资占该公司总贷款的60%。
马建屋是一家很特殊的金融机构，它可以接受公众人士的存款，但又不受国家银行监管，是我国硕果仅存的金融公司。
通常银行的放贷，每年只增加约10%，然而马建屋今年的放贷目标，竟高达100%，增幅如此之大，实属罕见。
这些款项，是借给什么人呢？
拿督再尼已提供了答案：该公司今年要发出50亿令吉的个人融资贷款，这就是该公司今年的总放贷将增加一倍的原因。
个人融资（Personal Financing）就是借款给个人，而不是借给企业。
个人融资主要是作为个人用途而不是作为商业用途，个人用途包括买家电、傢俬、电脑、装修屋子、买车或是儿女的教育费等等，其特征是数目不大，由借款人按月摊还，摊还期长达数年至十数年。
相信读者诸君都曾接到银行的电话，献议提供个人融资贷款给你。
马建屋就是在大力发展这类业务。
这类业务，如果管理不当，很容易沦为坏账，如果马建屋今年拟贷出的50亿令吉，是借给一般老百姓的话，变成坏账的可能性是存在的。
坏账少之又少
但是，马建屋的个人融资对象，不是普通人，而是公务员，借款给公务员的安全性特高，坏账微不足道，原来公务员很少辞职，马建屋借款给公务员之后，获准直接由公务员的薪水中，按月扣除还款数额，所以，坏账少之又少。
人民银行成功启示
贷款给公务员，做得最成功的，是人民银行（Bank Rakyat），人民银行是由合作社联合创设的银行，十数年来，盈利年年飙升，根据报道，该银行去年赚17亿令吉，主要的盈利来源，就是贷款给公务员。
马建屋显然是受到人民银行成功的启示，要在这类业务分一杯羹，因此积极发展贷款给公务员的业务，终于在2008年取得突破。
2008年该公司贷款10多亿令吉给公务员，去年激增至30亿令吉，今年计划贷出50亿令吉，可见该公司对这方面的业务，雄心勃勃。如果该公司个人融资，能保持这个成长率，该公司有望成为人民银行第二。
该公司去年盈利飙升58%，主要是拜个人融资暴增所赐。
今年为首两个半月，该公司已批准个人融资18亿令吉，如果能保持这个速度，今年要达成50亿令吉的个人融资目标并不难，如果盈利作正比例增加，而又没有不可预见环境出现的话，该公司今年的盈利可望更上一层楼。
公务员贷款推盈利
马建屋的年报一路来都有披露，个人融资是该公司盈利飙升的主要原因，但是，多数人都不了解“个人融资”的对象是什么人，除非你了解该公司的“个人融资”是借款给公务员，而且可以直接从公务员薪金中扣除还款额，你很难了解这类贷款坏账奇低的原因。
除非你了解人民银行的盈利纪录，你也不大可能了解贷款给公务员的盈利潜能，有了这些知识，你才会对马建屋今年拟贷出50亿令吉给公务员的行动，恍然大悟。
从这个例子，我们可以看出，丰富的知识，是解读财经资讯必须具备的条件。
丰富的知识，来自长期广泛的阅读。不断的累积财经知识储存在脑中，在阅读财经新闻时才能举一反三，使财经新闻成为你有用的投资参考资料。
现在就开始养成阅读财经资讯的习惯吧，财经资讯，对你有益！
2011/03/25 5:51:40 PM
●冷眼
对一般知识水平的股票投资者来说，报纸的财经新闻，是他的主要资讯来源。
许多人是根据报纸对某只股票的报道或评估，作出购买的决定。
我对于这种作出投资决定的方式，有所保留。
因为报纸的版位有限，不可能对事件作全面详尽的报道，如果读者对事件的前因后果，没有认识的话，只根据一篇报道作出投资决定，往往因为考虑不周而作出错误的判断。
报纸的财经新闻当然是重要的，但是所有报道都必须加以解读，才有助于作出正确的判断。
如果只根据一篇报道就妄下判断，很有可能因认识不够深入而沦为偏见，偏见导致过分的乐观或悲观，投资者可能因此而采取错误的行动，导致不必要的损失，或是坐失投资良机。
同一篇的报道，在不同知识水平的读者眼中，有不同的解读，正确的解读来自丰富的知识。
要成为一名智慧型投资者，你必须养成长期阅读财经资讯的习惯，把自己的脑子变成一块磁铁，不断的吸收及储存财经知识，在需要时，随时可以从脑子中将知识呼唤出来，帮助你解读及比较新的资讯。
培养兴趣准确判断
这样才可以避免因知识不够而产生偏见，或是对最新的资讯作出错误的解读，而对投资作出错误的判断，导致不必要的损失。
许多人由于对刚发生的事件，缺乏分析的能力，作出错误的解读。在情绪下作出仓促的决定，事后发现，已后悔莫及。
要避免错误，惟一的方法是阅读，阅读再阅读，养成凡是财经资讯绝不放过阅读的机会，要做到这一点，就一定要培养对财经资讯的兴趣。
惟有对财经有一份狂热，才有可能持久阅读，持之以恒的阅读，对许多事件的来龙去脉，才能了如指掌，对资讯才能举一反三，成为投资的有用知识。
随时有惊喜
许多人视阅读财经资讯为畏途，实际上财经事件，天天在变，怎么会枯燥无味呢？对我这个财经迷来说，财经资讯比武侠小说更有趣，因为变化无穷，随时有惊喜出现，其曲折离奇不在武侠小说之下。
一则新闻几面理解
同一则财经新闻报道，在知识水平不同的读者眼中，有不同的解读，不同的理解。
让我随手举一个例子说明。
3月19日，中英文报纸均以不大显目的版位刊登一则马建屋（MBSB）的新闻。
马建屋向公积金局借款5亿令吉，作为扩展业务用途，在贷款签署仪式后，马建屋总执行长拿督再尼向报界发表谈话，披露了一些有关马建屋业务进展的资讯。
公积金局拥有马建屋66.1%的股权，故马建屋是公积金局的子公司，作为母公司，公积金局在商业基础上借给马建屋5亿令吉的款项，是一件很平常的商业行动。
这则新闻吸引我的不是公积金局贷款给马建屋，而是拿督再尼所披露有关马建屋的最新资讯：
放贷目标增幅罕见
●该公司今年放眼贷款增至100亿令吉，比去年增加一倍。
●该公司今年的个人融资放眼50亿令吉，比去年的30亿令吉，增加20亿令吉。
●今年首二个半月，该公司已发出个人融资18亿令吉。
●个人融资占该公司总贷款的60%。
马建屋是一家很特殊的金融机构，它可以接受公众人士的存款，但又不受国家银行监管，是我国硕果仅存的金融公司。
通常银行的放贷，每年只增加约10%，然而马建屋今年的放贷目标，竟高达100%，增幅如此之大，实属罕见。
这些款项，是借给什么人呢？
拿督再尼已提供了答案：该公司今年要发出50亿令吉的个人融资贷款，这就是该公司今年的总放贷将增加一倍的原因。
个人融资（Personal Financing）就是借款给个人，而不是借给企业。
个人融资主要是作为个人用途而不是作为商业用途，个人用途包括买家电、傢俬、电脑、装修屋子、买车或是儿女的教育费等等，其特征是数目不大，由借款人按月摊还，摊还期长达数年至十数年。
相信读者诸君都曾接到银行的电话，献议提供个人融资贷款给你。
马建屋就是在大力发展这类业务。
这类业务，如果管理不当，很容易沦为坏账，如果马建屋今年拟贷出的50亿令吉，是借给一般老百姓的话，变成坏账的可能性是存在的。
坏账少之又少
但是，马建屋的个人融资对象，不是普通人，而是公务员，借款给公务员的安全性特高，坏账微不足道，原来公务员很少辞职，马建屋借款给公务员之后，获准直接由公务员的薪水中，按月扣除还款数额，所以，坏账少之又少。
人民银行成功启示
贷款给公务员，做得最成功的，是人民银行（Bank Rakyat），人民银行是由合作社联合创设的银行，十数年来，盈利年年飙升，根据报道，该银行去年赚17亿令吉，主要的盈利来源，就是贷款给公务员。
马建屋显然是受到人民银行成功的启示，要在这类业务分一杯羹，因此积极发展贷款给公务员的业务，终于在2008年取得突破。
2008年该公司贷款10多亿令吉给公务员，去年激增至30亿令吉，今年计划贷出50亿令吉，可见该公司对这方面的业务，雄心勃勃。如果该公司个人融资，能保持这个成长率，该公司有望成为人民银行第二。
该公司去年盈利飙升58%，主要是拜个人融资暴增所赐。
今年为首两个半月，该公司已批准个人融资18亿令吉，如果能保持这个速度，今年要达成50亿令吉的个人融资目标并不难，如果盈利作正比例增加，而又没有不可预见环境出现的话，该公司今年的盈利可望更上一层楼。
公务员贷款推盈利
马建屋的年报一路来都有披露，个人融资是该公司盈利飙升的主要原因，但是，多数人都不了解“个人融资”的对象是什么人，除非你了解该公司的“个人融资”是借款给公务员，而且可以直接从公务员薪金中扣除还款额，你很难了解这类贷款坏账奇低的原因。
除非你了解人民银行的盈利纪录，你也不大可能了解贷款给公务员的盈利潜能，有了这些知识，你才会对马建屋今年拟贷出50亿令吉给公务员的行动，恍然大悟。
从这个例子，我们可以看出，丰富的知识，是解读财经资讯必须具备的条件。
丰富的知识，来自长期广泛的阅读。不断的累积财经知识储存在脑中，在阅读财经新闻时才能举一反三，使财经新闻成为你有用的投资参考资料。
现在就开始养成阅读财经资讯的习惯吧，财经资讯，对你有益！
Portfolio 2011 - April Q2
1/4/2011 Q2 KLSE 收在 1555点 +10.25
1/4/2011 持有股票
CIMB 1023
FAJAR 7047
SUNREIT 5176
GENTING SP G13
SUNWAY 4308
日前日本地震海啸，利比亚， 导致油价飙升。股市在日本地震后的一个礼拜一直向下探险。。。
虽然那时价钱就好像megasales一样。。。但答应过自己q1 不可以再买了。
现在q2，股市都回升了。虽然看到价钱都飘升了。心理是有点叹息的。不过股市就是这样。
有起有落。不然就来一招神龙横摆。。。不上又不下。。。
在q2里还是继续 买入 4308， 7047，G13, 1023，5176.
1/4/2011 持有股票
CIMB 1023
FAJAR 7047
SUNREIT 5176
GENTING SP G13
SUNWAY 4308
日前日本地震海啸，利比亚， 导致油价飙升。股市在日本地震后的一个礼拜一直向下探险。。。
虽然那时价钱就好像megasales一样。。。但答应过自己q1 不可以再买了。
现在q2，股市都回升了。虽然看到价钱都飘升了。心理是有点叹息的。不过股市就是这样。
有起有落。不然就来一招神龙横摆。。。不上又不下。。。
在q2里还是继续 买入 4308， 7047，G13, 1023，5176.
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